Life in the UK Test Study Guide

British society is built upon fundamental values and principles that everyone living in the UK should respect and uphold. These values are reflected in the responsibilities, rights and privileges that come with being a British citizen or permanent resident. They are rooted in history and tradition, and safeguarded by law, custom and expectation. There is no place in British society for extremism or intolerance.

The fundamental principles of British life

The fundamental principles of British life include:

• Democracy
• The rule of law
• Individual liberty
• Tolerance of those with different faiths and beliefs
• Participation in community life

The citizenship pledge

During the citizenship ceremony, new citizens pledge to uphold these values. The pledge is: 'I will give my loyalty to the United Kingdom and respect its rights and freedoms. I will uphold its democratic values. I will observe its laws faithfully and fulfil my duties and obligations as a British citizen.'

Responsibilities of residents

If you wish to be a permanent resident or citizen of the UK, you should:

• Respect and obey the law
• Respect the rights of others, including their right to their own opinions
• Treat others with fairness
• Look after yourself and your family
• Look after the area in which you live and the environment

Freedoms offered by the UK

In return, the UK offers:

• Freedom of belief and religion
• Freedom of speech
• Freedom from unfair discrimination
• A right to a fair trial
• A right to join in the election of a government

In order to apply for permanent residence or citizenship in the UK, you must be able to speak and read English, and demonstrate a sound understanding of life in the UK.

Two ways to meet the requirements

There are currently two ways to satisfy these requirements:

• Take the Life in the UK test. The questions require an understanding of English at English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) Entry Level 3, so a separate English language test is not necessary. Applicants on work visas, including those on Tier 1 and Tier 2 of the points-based system, are normally required to pass the Life in the UK test to obtain permanent residence.

• Pass an ESOL course in English with Citizenship. This course is intended for those whose English is below ESOL Entry Level 3. It will help you improve your English and broaden your knowledge of life in the UK. A test is taken at the end of the course.

After passing the test

After passing one of these tests, you may apply for permanent residence or British citizenship. The form to complete and the evidence required will depend on your personal circumstances. An application fee applies, which varies according to the type of application. All forms and fees are available on the UK Border Agency website.

Requirements from October 2013

From October 2013, for settlement or permanent residence, you will need to:

• Pass the Life in the UK test
• AND produce acceptable evidence of speaking and listening skills in English at B1 of the Common European Framework of Reference, equivalent to ESOL Entry Level 3

The requirements for citizenship applications may also change in the future. You should check the UK Border Agency website for the latest requirements before applying.

The Life in the UK test comprises 24 questions covering important aspects of life in the UK. Questions are drawn from ALL parts of the official study material. Each person sitting the test at each session receives a different set of 24 questions.

Language and format

The test is normally taken in English, though special arrangements can be made for those wishing to sit it in Welsh or Scottish Gaelic.

Test centres and booking

You may only sit the test at a registered and approved Life in the UK test centre. Approximately 60 test centres operate across the UK. Booking is available exclusively online at www.lifeintheuktest.gov.uk. You should not sit your test at any other establishment, as the UK Border Agency will only recognise certificates from registered centres. Separate arrangements exist for residents of the Isle of Man or the Channel Islands.

What to bring

When booking your test, read the instructions carefully and ensure your details are entered correctly. You must bring identification and proof of your address to the test. Without these documents, you will not be permitted to sit the test.

How to prepare

Everything you need to know to pass the Life in the UK test is covered in these study sections. Since questions cover all topics, including the introduction, it is essential to study all sections thoroughly. The content is written so that anyone reading English at ESOL Entry Level 3 or above should have no difficulty with the language.

Where to find more information

• The UK Border Agency website (www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk) for information about the application process and forms
• The Life in the UK test website (www.lifeintheuktest.gov.uk) for information about the test and how to book
• Gov.uk (www.gov.uk) for information about ESOL courses and how to find one in your area

Everyone in the UK enjoys fundamental rights, including the right to a fair trial, freedom of speech, and freedom from discrimination. In return, all residents have a responsibility to obey the law, treat others with fairness and respect, and look after themselves and their families. These rights and responsibilities apply equally to citizens, permanent residents and those with permission to work or study in the UK.

The UK is a society of many cultures and traditions. Mutual respect and tolerance are essential values that allow people of different backgrounds to live and work together peacefully. While individuals may hold differing views and beliefs, everyone is expected to show courtesy and consideration to others, and to refrain from behaviour that could cause harm or offence.

UK law protects all people from unfair treatment regardless of age, disability, gender, race, religion, sexual orientation or other characteristics. The Equality Act 2010 brings together earlier anti-discrimination legislation into a single framework. Public bodies have a duty to promote equality, and employers must ensure that their workplaces are free from harassment and discrimination.

The UK is a parliamentary democracy, meaning the people choose their representatives through free and fair elections. The rule of law means that no one is above the law, and that the law applies equally to everyone. Courts and tribunals are independent of the government. These principles protect the rights of individuals and maintain public confidence in the justice system.

Being part of British society involves more than simply obeying the law. Residents are encouraged to participate in their local communities, whether through volunteering, taking part in local activities, or helping neighbours. Contributing to the community helps to build a stronger, more cohesive society. Participation in democratic processes, such as voting in elections, is also an important part of civic life.

The United Kingdom is made up of four countries: England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. The rest of Ireland is a separate, independent country. Each nation has its own distinct character, culture and traditions, though they are bound together under a single parliament at Westminster. The UK lies in the north-west of Europe.

<card icon="england_flag" title="England">The flag of England is the Cross of St George — a red cross on a white background. The capital city is London. The patron saint is St George.</card>

<card icon="scotland_flag" title="Scotland">The flag of Scotland is the Cross of St Andrew — a white diagonal cross on a blue background. The capital city is Edinburgh. The patron saint is St Andrew.</card>

<card icon="wales_flag" title="Wales">The flag of Wales features a red dragon on a green and white background. The capital city is Cardiff. The patron saint is St David.</card>

<card icon="northern_ireland_shamrock" title="Northern Ireland">The shamrock is a symbol associated with Northern Ireland. The capital city is Belfast. The patron saint is St Patrick.</card>

The country's official name is the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 'Great Britain' refers only to England, Scotland and Wales and does not include Northern Ireland. The words 'Britain', 'British' and 'the British Isles' are commonly used in everyday speech. The term 'British' is used to refer to everyone in the UK.

Several islands are closely linked with the UK but do not form part of it. The Channel Islands and the Isle of Man are known as Crown Dependencies and have their own governments and legal systems. There are also British overseas territories in other parts of the world, such as St Helena and the Falkland Islands. These territories are connected to the UK but are not part of it.

The UK is governed by the parliament sitting in Westminster, London. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland also have their own parliaments or assemblies with devolved powers in areas such as health and education. England does not have a separate parliament. Local government councils provide services at the county, district and parish level throughout the UK.

The UK has a population of over 67 million people. English is the official language, but there are also other recognised languages including Welsh, Scottish Gaelic and Irish Gaelic. The currency of the UK is the pound sterling, symbolised by the sign £. Scotland and Northern Ireland issue their own banknotes, which are legal currency throughout the UK, although shops are not required to accept them.

The Stone Age

Britain's earliest inhabitants were hunter-gatherers. A land bridge once connected Britain to the European continent, but the Channel permanently separated them around 10,000 years ago. The first farming communities appeared roughly 6,000 years ago, most likely arriving from south-east Europe. They constructed houses, tombs and monuments. Stonehenge, situated in the English county of Wiltshire, was probably a special gathering place for seasonal ceremonies. Skara Brae on Orkney, off Scotland's north coast, is the best preserved prehistoric village in northern Europe.

The Bronze Age and Iron Age

Approximately 4,000 years ago, people learned to make bronze. They lived in roundhouses and buried their dead in round barrows. During the Iron Age that followed, people crafted weapons and tools from iron, lived in hill forts such as Maiden Castle in Dorset, and spoke a Celtic language still related to languages spoken today in parts of Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The first coins to be minted in Britain date from the Iron Age, marking the beginnings of recorded British history.

The Romans

Julius Caesar made an unsuccessful attempt to invade Britain in 55 BC. In AD 43, Emperor Claudius led a successful invasion. Boudicca, queen of the Iceni in eastern England, led a revolt against the Romans; her statue stands on Westminster Bridge in London. Emperor Hadrian constructed a wall in northern England to keep out the Picts. Hadrian's Wall, including the forts of Housesteads and Vindolanda, is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Romans remained for 400 years, constructing roads, public buildings, and a structure of law. The first Christian communities emerged during the 3rd and 4th centuries AD.

The Anglo-Saxons

The Roman army departed Britain in AD 410. The country was subsequently invaded by the Jutes, the Angles and the Saxons from northern Europe. Their languages form the foundation of modern English. By around AD 600, Anglo-Saxon kingdoms had been established across what is now England. The burial place of one king was discovered at Sutton Hoo in Suffolk. Wales and Scotland remained free from Anglo-Saxon rule. Missionaries introduced Christianity: St Patrick became patron saint of Ireland, St Columba founded a monastery on Iona, and St Augustine, who became the first Archbishop of Canterbury, spread the faith in the south.

The Vikings

The Vikings arrived from Denmark and Norway, first raiding Britain in AD 789. They settled across the east and north of England in a region known as the Danelaw (place names such as Grimsby and Scunthorpe derive from Viking languages). King Alfred the Great unified the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and defeated the Vikings. For a brief period there were Danish kings, the first being Cnut (Canute). In Scotland, the Viking threat prompted the people to unite under King Kenneth MacAlpin.

The Norman Conquest

In 1066, William, Duke of Normandy, defeated Harold, the Saxon king, at the Battle of Hastings. William became king, known as William the Conqueror. The battle is depicted in the Bayeux Tapestry. This was the last successful foreign invasion of England. Norman French had a significant influence on the English language. The Normans conquered Wales but not Scotland. William commissioned the Domesday Book, a comprehensive survey of England's towns, people, land and animals, which survives to this day.

War at home and abroad

The period from the Norman Conquest to around 1485 is known as the Middle Ages, an era of almost constant warfare. English kings battled the Welsh, Scottish and Irish for control of their lands. In 1284, King Edward I enacted the Statute of Rhuddlan, annexing Wales to the Crown of England. Enormous castles, including Conwy and Caernarvon, were constructed. By the mid-15th century the last Welsh rebellions had been crushed and English laws and language were imposed.

In Scotland, the English met greater resistance. In 1314, Robert the Bruce defeated the English at the Battle of Bannockburn, and Scotland remained unconquered. In Ireland, the English initially arrived to assist the Irish king. By 1200, they controlled an area known as the Pale, surrounding Dublin.

English kings also waged war overseas. Knights took part in the Crusades for control of the Holy Land. The Hundred Years War with France lasted 116 years. At the Battle of Agincourt in 1415, Henry V's outnumbered army defeated the French. The English departed France in the 1450s.

The Black Death

The Normans introduced the feudal system: the king granted land to lords in return for military support. Most peasants were serfs who worked their lord's land and were unable to leave. In northern Scotland and Ireland, land was held by clans.

In 1348, a devastating plague known as the Black Death reached Britain. A third of England's population perished, with comparable losses in Scotland and Wales. It was one of the worst catastrophes in British history. The resulting labour shortages enabled peasants to demand higher wages. New social classes emerged, including the gentry, and people migrated to towns where growing wealth produced a strong middle class. In Ireland, the Black Death killed many in the Pale, reducing English control.

Legal and political changes

Parliament evolved from the king's council of advisers. In 1215, King John was compelled by his noblemen to agree to the Magna Carta (the Great Charter). It established that even the king was subject to the law, safeguarded the nobility's rights, and limited the king's power to collect taxes or alter laws without his noblemen's consent.

Parliament developed into two Houses: the House of Lords (nobility, landowners and bishops) and the House of Commons (knights and wealthy townspeople, elected). Scotland formed a Parliament with three Estates: lords, commons and clergy. In England, judges shaped common law through precedent and tradition. In Scotland, laws were codified (written down). Judicial independence from government began to take root.

A distinct identity

Following the Norman Conquest, noblemen spoke Norman French while peasants spoke Anglo-Saxon. These gradually merged into a single English language. Words such as 'park' and 'beauty' come from French; 'apple', 'cow' and 'summer' from Anglo-Saxon. By 1400, official documents were being written in English, the preferred language of court and Parliament.

Geoffrey Chaucer wrote The Canterbury Tales about pilgrims journeying to Canterbury. It was among the first books printed by William Caxton, the first person in England to operate a printing press. In Scotland, John Barbour wrote The Bruce about Bannockburn. Great cathedrals such as Lincoln Cathedral were built, and the stained glass in York Minster remains a famous example. English wool became a major export.

The Wars of the Roses

In 1455, civil war erupted between the House of Lancaster (red rose) and the House of York (white rose). The conflict ended at the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485, where Richard III was killed. Henry Tudor of Lancaster became King Henry VII. He married Richard's niece, Elizabeth of York, uniting the rival families as the first Tudor king. The Tudor emblem was a red rose with a white rose inside it.

Henry VII and Henry VIII

Having won the Wars of the Roses, Henry VII strengthened central government and curtailed the power of the nobility. His son Henry VIII continued to centralise authority. Henry VIII is best known for breaking with the Church of Rome and for his six marriages.

The Six Wives of Henry VIII

Henry's six wives were: Catherine of Aragon (a Spanish princess; daughter Mary); Anne Boleyn (daughter Elizabeth; executed at the Tower of London); Jane Seymour (son Edward; died after the birth); Anne of Cleves (German princess; quickly divorced); Catherine Howard (cousin of Anne Boleyn; executed); and Catherine Parr (survived Henry). To divorce Catherine of Aragon, Henry required the Pope's approval. When the Pope refused, Henry founded the Church of England, in which the king, rather than the Pope, held the authority to appoint bishops and determine how people should worship.

The Reformation

The Reformation was a movement opposing the authority of the Pope and the practices of the Roman Catholic Church. Protestants established their own churches and read the Bible in their own languages rather than in Latin. Protestant ideas gained considerable strength in England, Wales and Scotland during the 16th century. During Henry VIII's reign, Wales was formally united with England through the Act for the Government of Wales.

Edward VI and Bloody Mary

Henry was succeeded by his son Edward VI, a committed Protestant. During his reign, the Book of Common Prayer was composed. Edward died at 15, and his half-sister Mary took the throne. Mary was a devout Catholic who persecuted Protestants, earning her the nickname 'Bloody Mary'. After a brief reign she died and Elizabeth became queen.

Elizabeth I

Elizabeth I re-established the Church of England as the official Church and struck a balance between Catholics and extreme Protestants. She became one of the most popular monarchs in English history, especially after 1588 when the English defeated the Spanish Armada dispatched by Spain to conquer England.

Exploration, Poetry and Drama

Sir Francis Drake helped defeat the Spanish Armada and his ship, the Golden Hind, was among the first to sail around the world. English settlers first began to colonise America during Elizabeth's reign. William Shakespeare (1564-1616), born in Stratford-upon-Avon, wrote renowned plays including A Midsummer Night's Dream, Hamlet, Macbeth and Romeo and Juliet. He had a profound influence on the English language. The Globe Theatre in London is a modern reconstruction of the venue where his plays were first staged.

James VI and I

Elizabeth I never married and had no children. Upon her death in 1603, her cousin James VI of Scotland became King James I of England. His reign produced the King James Bible (the Authorised Version), still used in many Protestant churches today.

The English Civil War

James I and his son Charles I believed in the 'Divine Right of Kings'. Charles I attempted to rule without Parliament for 11 years and was eventually compelled to recall it. Parliament rejected his demands for money. Charles entered the House of Commons to arrest five parliamentary leaders, but they had already escaped. No monarch has set foot in the Commons since. Civil war broke out in 1642 between the Cavaliers (royalists) and the Roundheads (parliamentarians).

Oliver Cromwell

The king's forces were defeated at the Battles of Marston Moor and Naseby. Charles I was executed in 1649. England was declared a republic called the Commonwealth. Oliver Cromwell imposed parliamentary authority in Ireland with such brutality that he remains a controversial figure there. He defeated a Scottish army supporting Charles II at Dunbar and Worcester. Cromwell served as Lord Protector until his death in 1658. His son Richard proved unable to maintain control, and the people called for the restoration of a king.

The Restoration

In 1660, Charles II was invited to return and was crowned king. During his reign, plague ravaged London in 1665 and the Great Fire destroyed much of the city in 1666. St Paul's Cathedral was rebuilt by Sir Christopher Wren. Samuel Pepys recorded these events in his diary. The Habeas Corpus Act (1679) ensured that no one could be held prisoner unlawfully. The Royal Society was established to promote science; its members included Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727), who published his work on gravity and discovered that white light is composed of the colours of the rainbow.

The Glorious Revolution

Charles II's brother James II, a Catholic, became king in 1685 and showed favour to Roman Catholics. In 1688, Protestant leaders invited William of Orange to invade. James fled to France and William became William III, ruling jointly with Mary. This 'Glorious Revolution' involved no fighting in England and secured the power of Parliament. William defeated James II at the Battle of the Boyne in Ireland in 1690, an event still commemorated by some in Northern Ireland today. Irish Catholics were excluded from government. James's supporters became known as Jacobites.

Constitutional monarchy - The Bill of Rights

At the coronation of William and Mary, the Bill of Rights (1689) confirmed that the king could no longer raise taxes or administer justice without Parliament's consent. The monarch was required to be a Protestant. A new Parliament had to be elected at least every three years (later extended to seven, now five). The emergence of the Whigs and the Tories marked the start of party politics. From 1695, newspapers were permitted to operate without a government licence. Only property-owning men could vote; no women had the franchise. Constituencies controlled by a single family were known as 'pocket boroughs'; those with very few voters were called 'rotten boroughs'.

A growing population and the Acts of Union

The first Jews to settle in Britain since the Middle Ages arrived in London in 1656. Between 1680 and 1720, Huguenot refugees fled from France -- Protestants with skills in science, banking and weaving. The Act of Union (known as the Treaty of Union in Scotland) was agreed in 1707, establishing the Kingdom of Great Britain. Scotland retained its own legal and education systems and its Presbyterian Church. In 1801, Ireland was united with England, Scotland and Wales through the Act of Union of 1800, forming the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.

The Hanoverians and the Prime Minister

When Queen Anne died in 1714, Parliament selected George I, a German who was Anne's nearest Protestant relative. He depended heavily on ministers as he spoke little English. The most prominent minister became known as the Prime Minister; Sir Robert Walpole was the first to hold this role (1721-1742). In 1745, Bonnie Prince Charlie (Charles Edward Stuart) landed in Scotland but was defeated at the Battle of Culloden in 1746. In the aftermath, the 'Highland Clearances' saw landlords replace small farms (crofts) with sheep and cattle; many Scots emigrated to North America.

The Enlightenment

The 18th century saw the emergence of new ideas known as 'the Enlightenment'. Many leading thinkers were Scottish: Adam Smith on economics, David Hume on human nature, and James Watt on steam power. A central principle was that everyone should have the right to their own political and religious beliefs. Robert Burns (1759-96), known as 'The Bard', wrote Auld Lang Syne, sung at New Year.

The Industrial Revolution

Britain was the first nation to industrialise on a large scale during the 18th and 19th centuries, driven by new machinery and steam power. Richard Arkwright (1732-92) developed spinning mills and harnessed steam engines. The Bessemer process for producing steel spurred the growth of shipbuilding and railways. Canals were constructed to move goods across the country. Captain James Cook mapped Australia; Britain gained control over Canada; and the East India Company dominated large parts of India. Sake Dean Mahomet (1759-1851) opened the Hindoostane Coffee House in London in 1810 -- the first curry house in Britain.

The slave trade and abolition

By the 18th century, the slave trade was dominated by Britain and the American colonies, with enslaved people from West Africa transported to America and the Caribbean. The Quakers founded the first anti-slavery groups in the late 1700s. William Wilberforce played a key role in changing the law. In 1807, it became illegal to trade slaves in British ships. In 1833, the Emancipation Act abolished slavery throughout the British Empire.

War with France and American independence

American colonists declared independence in 1776, which Britain recognised in 1783. Admiral Nelson won the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 but was killed in the engagement; Nelson's Column stands in Trafalgar Square. In 1815, the Duke of Wellington (the Iron Duke) defeated Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo. The Union Flag combines the crosses of St George (England), St Andrew (Scotland) and St Patrick (Ireland). Wales is not represented because it was already united with England when the first flag was created in 1606.

The Victorian Age and the British Empire

Queen Victoria reigned from 1837 to 1901 (almost 64 years). The Empire expanded to encompass India, Australia and large parts of Africa, becoming the largest empire the world had ever seen, with over 400 million people. Between 1853 and 1913, some 13 million British citizens departed the UK. The Corn Laws were repealed in 1846. George and Robert Stephenson pioneered the railway engine. Isambard Kingdom Brunel (1806-59) built the Great Western Railway and numerous bridges. The Great Exhibition opened in 1851 at the Crystal Palace.

The Crimean War and social reform

From 1853 to 1856, Britain fought Russia in the Crimean War. Queen Victoria instituted the Victoria Cross. Florence Nightingale (1820-1910) transformed hospital conditions and is regarded as the founder of modern nursing, establishing the Nightingale Training School at St Thomas' Hospital in 1860. In Ireland, the potato famine claimed a million lives; a further million and a half emigrated. The Reform Acts of 1832 and 1867 broadened voting rights. Emmeline Pankhurst founded the WSPU in 1903; women over 30 gained the vote in 1918, and equal voting rights at 21 followed in 1928. The Boer War (1899-1902) was fought in South Africa. Rudyard Kipling (1865-1936) was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1907.

The First World War

The early 20th century brought important social advances: old-age pensions, free school meals and a salary for MPs. On 28 June 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria was assassinated, sparking the First World War (1914-18). Britain joined the Allied Powers (France, Russia, Japan, Belgium, Serbia, and later the USA) against the Central Powers (Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the Ottoman Empire). The entire British Empire was drawn into the conflict -- over a million Indians served alongside British forces, as did men from the West Indies, Africa, Australia, New Zealand and Canada. More than 2 million British casualties resulted. The Battle of the Somme in July 1916 caused approximately 60,000 British casualties on its first day alone. The war concluded at 11.00 am on 11th November 1918.

The partition of Ireland

In 1913, the government pledged 'Home Rule' for Ireland, but Protestants in the north opposed it. In 1916, Irish Nationalists launched the Easter Rising in Dublin; the leaders were executed under military law. A guerrilla war ensued. In 1921 a peace treaty was signed and in 1922 Ireland was partitioned. Six predominantly Protestant counties in the north remained part of the UK as Northern Ireland. The remainder became the Irish Free State, later becoming a republic in 1949. The longstanding conflict between those seeking Irish independence and those loyal to Britain is known as 'the Troubles'.

The inter-war period

The 1920s brought improvements in housing and living conditions. In 1929, the 'Great Depression' caused mass unemployment. Traditional industries such as shipbuilding declined, while new industries emerged -- including automobile manufacturing and aviation. Car ownership doubled from 1 million to 2 million between 1930 and 1939. Writers Graham Greene and Evelyn Waugh produced notable works, and economist John Maynard Keynes published influential theories. The BBC began radio broadcasts in 1922 and launched the world's first regular television service in 1936.

The Second World War

Hitler rose to power in Germany in 1933. When he invaded Poland in 1939, Britain and France declared war. The principal Allied countries included the UK, France, Poland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada and South Africa. In 1940, Winston Churchill became Prime Minister. As France fell, over 300,000 men were evacuated from Dunkirk by civilian boats and the Navy -- giving rise to 'the Dunkirk spirit'. From June 1940 to June 1941, Britain stood virtually alone against Nazi Germany.

The British won the Battle of Britain in the summer of 1940, a pivotal aerial engagement. The key aircraft were the Spitfire and the Hurricane. Germany then subjected British cities to night-time bombing -- the Blitz. Coventry was almost entirely destroyed. 'The Blitz spirit' describes the way Britons pulled together in the face of adversity. The US entered the war after Japan bombed Pearl Harbour in December 1941. On 6 June 1944 (D-Day), Allied forces landed in Normandy. Germany was defeated in May 1945. Japan surrendered in August 1945 following the dropping of atom bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Ernest Rutherford, working at Manchester and Cambridge, was the first to 'split the atom'.

Winston Churchill (1874-1965)

Churchill entered Parliament as a Conservative MP in 1900 and became Prime Minister in May 1940. He refused to surrender to the Nazis and inspired the nation through his leadership. He lost the 1945 election but returned as PM in 1951, serving until 1964. In 2002 he was voted the greatest Briton of all time. His famous speeches include: 'I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears and sweat' and 'We shall fight on the beaches... we shall never surrender.'

Alexander Fleming (1881-1955)

Born in Scotland, Fleming discovered penicillin in 1928 during research into influenza. The drug was developed further by Howard Florey and Ernst Chain, reaching mass production by the 1940s. Fleming was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine in 1945.

The welfare state

In 1945 the British people elected a Labour government under Clement Attlee, who pledged to implement the welfare state set out in the Beveridge Report. William Beveridge's 1942 report called for action against the five 'Giant Evils' of Want, Disease, Ignorance, Squalor and Idleness. In 1948, Aneurin (Nye) Bevan oversaw the creation of the National Health Service (NHS), providing health care for all, free at the point of use. A national benefits system delivered 'social security' from the 'cradle to the grave'. The government nationalised the railways, coal mines, gas, water and electricity. R A Butler was responsible for the Education Act 1944 ('The Butler Act'), which introduced free secondary education.

Migration in post-war Britain

Rebuilding Britain demanded a vast workforce. The government encouraged workers from Ireland and Europe to come to the UK. In 1948, people from the West Indies were invited to come and work. Throughout the 1950s, industries advertised abroad for workers; textile and engineering firms dispatched agents to India and Pakistan. Over roughly 25 years, people from the West Indies, India, Pakistan and later Bangladesh made Britain their home. In the late 1960s, new legislation restricted immigration. In the early 1970s, Britain accepted 28,000 people of Indian origin who had been expelled from Uganda.

Social change in the 1960s

The 1960s became known as 'the Swinging Sixties', characterised by growth in fashion, cinema and popular music spearheaded by The Beatles and The Rolling Stones. Social legislation was liberalised in areas such as divorce and abortion. New laws granted women the right to equal pay and outlawed workplace discrimination. Britain and France jointly developed Concorde, the world's only supersonic commercial airliner, which made its maiden flight in 1969.

British inventions

Television was developed by John Logie Baird in the 1920s. Radar was developed by Sir Robert Watson-Watt. Alan Turing devised the Turing machine in the 1930s, which proved influential in modern computing. The structure of DNA was discovered in 1953; Francis Crick was awarded the Nobel Prize. The jet engine was developed by Sir Frank Whittle. Sir Christopher Cockerell invented the hovercraft. James Goodfellow invented the cash-dispensing ATM. IVF therapy was pioneered in Britain, and the first 'test-tube baby' was born in 1978. In 1996, Dolly the sheep became the first cloned mammal. Sir Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web.

Problems in the 1970s and Northern Ireland

In the late 1970s, the post-war economic boom came to an end as rising prices and industrial strikes strained relations between trade unions and government. The 1970s also witnessed serious unrest in Northern Ireland; in 1972, the Northern Ireland Parliament was suspended and approximately 3,000 people lost their lives in the decades of violence that followed 1969. The UK joined the European Economic Community (EEC) in 1973.

Margaret Thatcher and the Conservatives (1979-1997)

Margaret Thatcher became the first woman Prime Minister in 1979, serving until 1990 as the longest-serving PM of the 20th century. Her government privatised nationalised industries and introduced controls on trade unions. She worked closely with US President Ronald Reagan and helped bring about the end of the Cold War. In 1982, a naval taskforce recaptured the Falkland Islands following an Argentine invasion. John Major succeeded Thatcher and helped initiate the Northern Ireland peace process.

Tony Blair, devolution and the Good Friday Agreement

In 1997, Tony Blair's Labour government established a Scottish Parliament and a Welsh Assembly (devolution). The Good Friday Agreement was signed in 1998, and the Northern Ireland Assembly was elected in 1999. Gordon Brown became Prime Minister in 2007. Britain played leading roles in the liberation of Kuwait (1990) and in operations in Afghanistan and Iraq.

Recent governments

In 2010, a Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition was formed under David Cameron. From 2015 to 2024, Conservative governments under Cameron, Theresa May, Boris Johnson, Liz Truss and Rishi Sunak oversaw the 2016 Brexit referendum and the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2024, Labour under Keir Starmer won the general election.

Scientists and engineers

Sir Isaac Newton discovered the laws of gravity and motion, and is regarded as one of the most influential scientists of all time. Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection, set out in his book On the Origin of Species. Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, the first antibiotic. Sir Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web, transforming global communication.

Social and political reformers

William Wilberforce campaigned for the abolition of the slave trade, which Parliament banned in 1807. Emmeline Pankhurst led the suffragette movement and helped secure voting rights for women. Florence Nightingale established modern nursing during the Crimean War and improved hospital standards throughout the country.

The two World Wars and their aftermath

The First World War (1914-1918) and the Second World War (1939-1945) had a profound impact on British society. Millions served in the armed forces, and many civilians contributed to the war effort at home. After 1945, the UK established the welfare state and the National Health Service. The country played a leading role in founding the United Nations and NATO.

From Empire to Commonwealth

During the 20th century, most former colonies gained independence, and the British Empire evolved into the Commonwealth of Nations. The Commonwealth today is a voluntary association of 56 countries that promotes democracy, human rights and economic development. The UK also joined the European Economic Community in 1973, later leaving the European Union in 2020.

The nations of the UK

The UK lies in the north-west of Europe. The greatest distance on the mainland runs from John O'Groats in Scotland to Land's End in England, roughly 870 miles (approximately 1,400 kilometres). Although most people reside in towns and cities, much of Britain remains countryside.

Cities and capital cities

England's major cities include London, Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield, Manchester and Bristol. The main cities in Wales are Cardiff, Swansea and Newport. Scotland's principal cities are Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundee and Aberdeen. Belfast is the main city of Northern Ireland. The UK's capital is London, Scotland's capital is Edinburgh, Wales's capital is Cardiff, and Northern Ireland's capital is Belfast.

UK currency, languages and dialects

The currency is the pound sterling (symbol £), with 100 pence to a pound. Northern Ireland and Scotland issue their own banknotes, which are valid throughout the UK, though shops are not obliged to accept them. English is spoken with many accents and dialects. In Wales, many people speak Welsh. In Scotland, Gaelic is spoken in some parts of the Highlands and Islands, and in Northern Ireland some people speak Irish Gaelic.

Population

The UK population has grown from just over 4 million in 1600 to an estimated 67.6 million in 2022. Migration and increasing life expectancy have contributed to recent growth. England accounts for 84% of the total population, Wales around 5%, Scotland just over 8% and Northern Ireland less than 3%. People are living longer than ever owing to improved living standards and better health care, with a record number of people aged 85 and over.

Ethnic diversity and an equal society

The UK is ethnically diverse and changing rapidly, particularly in large cities such as London. The most commonly chosen ethnic description is white, with other significant groups being of Asian, black and mixed descent. The law requires that men and women are not discriminated against on the grounds of gender or marital status. Women make up roughly half of the workforce, and on average girls leave school with better qualifications than boys. In many families today, both partners work and share responsibility for childcare and household tasks.

Religion in the UK

The UK is historically a Christian country. In the 2009 Citizenship Survey, 70% of people identified as Christian. Much smaller proportions identified as Muslim (4%), Hindu (2%), Sikh (1%), Jewish or Buddhist (both less than 0.5%), and 2% followed another religion. Everyone has the legal right to choose their religion, or to choose not to practise any religion at all. In the same survey, 21% of people stated that they had no religion. Religious buildings for faiths other than Christianity are found all over the UK, including Islamic mosques, Hindu temples, Jewish synagogues, Sikh gurdwaras and Buddhist temples.

Christian Churches

In England, there is a constitutional link between Church and state. The official state Church is the Church of England (known as the Anglican Church in other countries and the Episcopal Church in Scotland and the United States). It is a Protestant Church that has existed since the Reformation in the 1530s. The monarch serves as head of the Church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the spiritual leader of the Church. The monarch has the right to appoint the Archbishop and other senior church officials, though in practice the selection is usually made by the Prime Minister and a committee appointed by the Church. Several Church of England bishops hold seats in the House of Lords.

In Scotland, the national Church is the Church of Scotland, a Presbyterian Church governed by ministers and elders. The chairperson of its General Assembly is the Moderator, appointed for one year only and often speaking on behalf of that Church. There is no established Church in Wales or Northern Ireland. Other Protestant Christian groups in the UK include Baptists, Methodists, Presbyterians and Quakers. There are further denominations of Christianity, the largest being Roman Catholic.

Patron Saints' days

Each UK country has a national saint, known as a patron saint. Each has a special day: 1 March is St David's Day (Wales), 17 March is St Patrick's Day (Northern Ireland), 23 April is St George's Day (England), and 30 November is St Andrew's Day (Scotland). Only Scotland and Northern Ireland observe their patron saint's day as an official holiday. Although patron saints' days are no longer public holidays in England and Wales, they continue to be marked with parades and small festivals.

The main Christian festivals

Christmas Day, 25 December, celebrates the birth of Jesus Christ and is a public holiday. People enjoy a special meal that typically includes roast turkey, Christmas pudding and mince pies. They exchange gifts, send cards and decorate their homes and a tree. Children believe Father Christmas (Santa Claus) brings presents. Boxing Day, 26 December, is also a public holiday.

Easter falls in March or April. Good Friday and Easter Monday are public holidays. The 40 days preceding Easter are known as Lent. The day before Lent is Shrove Tuesday, or Pancake Day. Lent commences on Ash Wednesday. Chocolate Easter eggs are given as gifts to symbolise new life.

Other religious festivals

Diwali, the Festival of Lights, takes place in October or November and is celebrated by Hindus and Sikhs. Hannukah is observed for eight days in November or December, commemorating the Jewish struggle for religious freedom using a menorah. Eid al-Fitr marks the conclusion of Ramadan. Eid ul Adha remembers the prophet Ibrahim's willingness to sacrifice his son. Vaisakhi (Baisakhi) is a Sikh festival held on 14 April to celebrate the founding of the Khalsa.

Other festivals and traditions

New Year (1 January) is a public holiday. In Scotland, 31 December is known as Hogmanay and 2 January is also a public holiday; for some Scots, Hogmanay is a bigger occasion than Christmas. Valentine's Day falls on 14 February. April Fool's Day is 1 April. Mothering Sunday is three weeks before Easter. Father's Day is the third Sunday in June. Halloween, 31 October, features dressing up and 'trick or treat'.

Bonfire Night, 5 November, commemorates Guy Fawkes' failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605 to blow up the Houses of Parliament, and is marked with fireworks. Remembrance Day, 11 November, honours those who died serving the UK. People wear poppies, and at 11.00 am a two-minute silence is observed. Wreaths are laid at the Cenotaph in Whitehall, London.

Patron saints' days

Each UK country has a patron saint: St David's Day, 1 March (Wales); St Patrick's Day, 17 March (Northern Ireland); St George's Day, 23 April (England); St Andrew's Day, 30 November (Scotland). Only Scotland and Northern Ireland observe their patron saint's day as an official holiday.

Bank holidays

Additional public holidays called bank holidays, with no religious significance, occur at the start of May, in late May or early June, and in August. In Northern Ireland, the anniversary of the Battle of the Boyne in July is also a public holiday.

Overview

Sport plays an important role in many people's lives. Major venues include Wembley Stadium in London and the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff. Many well-known sports originated in Britain, including cricket, football, lawn tennis, golf and rugby.

The Olympics

The UK hosted the Olympic Games in 1908, 1948 and 2012. The 2012 Games took place in Stratford, East London, where the British team finished third in the medal table. The Paralympic Games were also held in London in 2012, having originated from the pioneering work of Dr Sir Ludwig Guttman at Stoke Mandeville hospital.

Notable British sportspeople

Sir Roger Bannister (1929-) ran the first sub-four-minute mile in 1954. Bobby Moore (1941-93) captained England to the 1966 World Cup victory. Sir Ian Botham (1955-) captained the English cricket team and holds numerous Test records. Torvill and Dean won Olympic ice dancing gold in 1984. Sir Steve Redgrave (1962-) claimed rowing gold at five consecutive Olympics. Dame Kelly Holmes (1970-) won two gold medals for running in 2004. Sir Chris Hoy (1976-) won six Olympic gold cycling medals. Bradley Wiggins (1980-) became the first Briton to win the Tour de France in 2012. Mo Farah (1983-) won 2012 Olympic gold in both the 5,000m and 10,000m. Jessica Ennis (1986-) won 2012 Olympic heptathlon gold. Andy Murray (1987-) won the 2012 US Open. Ellie Simmonds (1994-) won Paralympic swimming golds in 2008 and 2012.

Cricket

Cricket originated in England and matches can last up to five days. The most celebrated competition is the Ashes, a series of Test matches between England and Australia.

Football

Football is the UK's most popular sport, with professional clubs having been formed in the late 19th century. Each UK country has its own league and the English Premier League draws a huge international audience. Each country fields a national team that competes in the FIFA World Cup and UEFA European Championships. England's sole international tournament victory came at the 1966 World Cup.

Rugby

Rugby originated in England in the early 19th century and has two forms: union and league. The most prestigious rugby union competition is the Six Nations Championship, contested by England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, France and Italy.

Horse racing

Horse racing has a long history in Britain stretching back to Roman times, with a strong association with royalty. Famous events include Royal Ascot, the Grand National at Aintree, and the Scottish Grand National at Ayr.

Golf

Golf can be traced back to 15th-century Scotland. St Andrews is recognised as the home of golf. The Open Championship is the only Major tournament held outside the United States.

Tennis

Modern tennis evolved in England in the late 19th century. The Wimbledon Championships, held at the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club, is the oldest tennis tournament in the world and the only Grand Slam event played on grass.

Motor sports

Motor-car racing in the UK dates from 1902. The UK is a world leader in motor-sport technology. A Formula 1 Grand Prix is held in the UK each year. Recent British F1 champions include Damon Hill, Lewis Hamilton and Jensen Button.

Music

Music is a vital part of British culture, spanning classical to contemporary pop. The Proms is an eight-week summer season of orchestral concerts at the Royal Albert Hall, organised by the BBC since 1927. The Last Night of the Proms is the best-known event. Important classical composers include Henry Purcell (1659-95), who developed a distinctly British style at Westminster Abbey; George Frederick Handel (1695-1759), who composed the Water Music, Music for the Royal Fireworks, and the oratorio Messiah; Gustav Holst (1874-1934), who wrote The Planets; Sir Edward Elgar (1857-1934), renowned for the Pomp and Circumstance Marches; and Benjamin Britten (1913-76), celebrated for operas including Peter Grimes.

From the 1960s onwards, British pop music has exerted a worldwide influence through bands such as The Beatles and The Rolling Stones, the Punk movement of the late 1970s, and boy and girl bands in the 1990s. Well-known festivals include Glastonbury and the Isle of Wight Festival. The Mercury Music Prize and the Brit Awards honour musical achievement.

Theatre

London's West End, known as 'Theatreland', is especially renowned. The Mousetrap by Dame Agatha Christie has been running since 1952, the longest initial run of any show in history. Gilbert and Sullivan composed comic operas including HMS Pinafore and The Mikado. Andrew Lloyd Webber created Jesus Christ Superstar, Evita, Cats, and The Phantom of the Opera. Pantomime is a British Christmas tradition. The Edinburgh Festival Fringe presents theatre and comedy each summer, and the Laurence Olivier Awards honour excellence in London theatre.

Art

Notable British artists include Thomas Gainsborough (1727-88), Joseph Turner (1775-1851) who elevated landscape painting, John Constable (1776-1837), and the Pre-Raphaelites who depicted detailed religious and literary themes. Later figures include Henry Moore (1898-1986), known for bronze abstract sculptures, and David Hockney (1937-), a leading figure in pop art. Major galleries include The National Gallery, Tate Britain and Tate Modern in London. The Turner Prize, founded in 1984, recognises contemporary art.

Architecture

Medieval cathedrals at Durham, Lincoln, Canterbury, and Salisbury survive to this day. In the 17th century, Inigo Jones designed the Queen's House at Greenwich and the Banqueting House, while Sir Christopher Wren constructed the new St Paul's Cathedral. The Scottish architect Robert Adam shaped 18th-century design. The 19th-century gothic revival gave rise to the Houses of Parliament and St Pancras Station. Sir Edwin Lutyens designed New Delhi and the Cenotaph in Whitehall. Contemporary architects include Sir Norman Foster, Lord Rogers, and Dame Zaha Hadid. Lancelot 'Capability' Brown created natural-looking landscapes, and the Chelsea Flower Show highlights garden design annually.

Fashion and design

Britain has produced designers ranging from Thomas Chippendale (furniture) to Clarice Cliff (Art Deco ceramics). Leading fashion designers include Mary Quant, Alexander McQueen, and Vivienne Westwood.

Literature

The UK boasts a distinguished literary tradition. Nobel Prize winners include Sir William Golding, Seamus Heaney, and Harold Pinter. The Man Booker Prize has been awarded annually since 1968. Notable authors include Jane Austen (Pride and Prejudice), Charles Dickens (Oliver Twist, Great Expectations), Robert Louis Stevenson (Treasure Island), Thomas Hardy (Far from the Madding Crowd), Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (Sherlock Holmes), and J K Rowling (Harry Potter).

British poets

British poetry encompasses the Anglo-Saxon poem Beowulf, Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, Shakespeare's sonnets, and Milton's Paradise Lost. Wordsworth and Sir Walter Scott drew inspiration from nature. 19th-century poets include William Blake, John Keats, Lord Byron, and Alfred Lord Tennyson. Wilfred Owen and Siegfried Sassoon wrote powerfully about the First World War. Many poets are commemorated in Poet's Corner in Westminster Abbey.

Gardening

Many people in the UK have gardens at home. Some rent additional land known as an 'allotment' to grow fruit and vegetables. Famous gardens include Kew Gardens, Sissinghurst, Hidcote, Crathes Castle, Bodnant Garden, and Mount Stewart. Each country of the UK has a flower particularly associated with it.

Shopping

Most towns have a central shopping area along with undercover shopping centres. Shops are generally open seven days a week, with shorter hours on Sundays and public holidays. Many towns also hold regular markets.

Cooking and food

A wide range of food is eaten in the UK, reflecting the diversity of its population. Traditional dishes include roast beef with Yorkshire puddings and fish and chips (England), Welsh cakes (Wales), haggis (Scotland), and the Ulster fry (Northern Ireland).

Films

The UK has had a significant influence on the cinema. Sir Charlie Chaplin became famous for his silent movie tramp character. Distinguished directors include Sir Alfred Hitchcock and Sir David Lean. The annual BAFTA awards are considered the British equivalent of the Oscars. Some of the highest-grossing film franchises, including Harry Potter and James Bond, were produced in the UK.

Television and radio

Popular programmes include soap operas such as Coronation Street and EastEnders. Everyone with a television must hold a television licence. The licence fee funds the BBC, the world's largest broadcaster and the only wholly state-funded media organisation that is independent of government.

Pubs and night clubs

Public houses (pubs) are an important part of UK social culture. Pub quizzes, pool, and darts are popular activities. You must be 18 or over to purchase alcohol. Pubs typically open from 11.00 am (12 noon on Sundays).

Betting and gambling

You must be 18 to enter betting shops or gambling clubs. There is a National Lottery with weekly draws.

Pets

Many people keep pets such as cats or dogs. It is against the law to treat a pet cruelly or to neglect it. Dogs in public places must wear a collar displaying the owner's name and address, and owners are required to clean up after them.

The countryside and national parks

The UK has an extensive network of public footpaths in the countryside, offering many opportunities for mountain biking, mountaineering and hill walking. There are 15 national parks across England, Wales and Scotland. These are areas of protected countryside open to everyone, where people live, work and care for the landscape.

Museums and galleries

The UK has many museums, ranging from small community collections to large national and civic institutions. Famous landmarks can be found in towns, cities and the countryside throughout the UK. Most are open to the public, generally for an admission charge.

The National Trust

Many parts of the countryside and places of interest are maintained by the National Trust in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and the National Trust for Scotland. Both are charities dedicated to preserving important buildings, coastline and countryside in the UK. The National Trust was established in 1895 by three volunteers. Today, more than 61,000 volunteers help keep the organisation running.

UK landmarks

Big Ben is the nickname for the great bell of the clock at the Houses of Parliament in London. Many people also use the name for the clock itself. The clock is over 150 years old and is a popular tourist attraction. The clock tower was named 'Elizabeth Tower' in honour of Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee in 2012.

The Eden Project is situated in Cornwall, in the south-west of England. Its biomes, resembling giant greenhouses, contain plants from around the world. The Eden Project also operates as a charity running environmental and social projects internationally.

Edinburgh Castle is a commanding feature of the Edinburgh skyline in Scotland. It has a long history stretching back to the early Middle Ages. It is maintained by Historic Scotland, a Scottish government agency.

Situated on the north-east coast of Northern Ireland, the Giant's Causeway is a formation of columns created from volcanic lava. It was formed approximately 50 million years ago. Numerous legends surround the Causeway and its origins.

Loch Lomond and the Trossachs National Park

This national park covers 720 square miles (1,865 square kilometres) in western Scotland. Loch Lomond is the largest expanse of fresh water in mainland Britain and probably the best-known feature of the park.

The London Eye

The London Eye stands on the southern bank of the River Thames and is a Ferris wheel reaching 443 feet (135 metres) in height. It was originally constructed as part of the UK's millennium celebrations and continues to play a prominent role in New Year festivities.

Snowdonia

Snowdonia is a national park in North Wales covering an area of 838 square miles (2,170 square kilometres). Its most famous landmark is Snowdon, the highest mountain in Wales.

The Tower of London

The Tower of London was first built by William the Conqueror after he became king in 1066. Tours are conducted by the Yeoman Warders, also known as Beefeaters, who recount the building's history to visitors. The Crown Jewels are also housed there.

The Lake District

The Lake District is England's largest national park, covering 885 square miles (2,292 square kilometres). It is celebrated for its lakes and mountains and is very popular with climbers, walkers and sailors. The largest body of water is Windermere. In 2007, television viewers voted Wastwater as Britain's favourite view.

Democracy is a system of government in which the entire adult population has a voice, either through direct voting or by electing representatives to make decisions on their behalf.

At the start of the 19th century, Britain was not a democracy in the modern sense. Although elections were held to choose members of Parliament (MPs), only a small group could vote. These were men over 21 years of age who owned a certain amount of property. The franchise (the number of people entitled to vote) expanded over the course of the 19th century, and political parties began to recruit ordinary men and women as members.

In the 1830s and 1840s, a movement known as the Chartists campaigned for reform. They demanded six changes: the vote for every man; annual elections; equal representation for all regions; secret ballots; the right for any man to stand as an MP; and payment for MPs. At the time, the campaign was widely regarded as a failure. However, by 1918 most of these reforms had been implemented.

The franchise was also extended to women over 30, and then in 1928 to men and women over 21. In 1969, the voting age was lowered to 18 for both men and women.

A constitution is a set of principles by which a country is governed, encompassing the institutions responsible for running the country and how their power is kept in check. The British constitution is not contained in any single document and is therefore described as 'unwritten'. This is largely because the UK, unlike America or France, has never experienced a revolution that permanently replaced the entire system of government.

Constitutional institutions

The principal components of government in the UK are: the monarchy; Parliament (the House of Commons and the House of Lords); the Prime Minister; the cabinet; the judiciary (courts); the police; the civil service; and local government. Devolved governments in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland also have the power to legislate on certain matters.

The monarchy

The monarch is the head of state of the UK and of many Commonwealth countries. The UK has a constitutional monarchy, which means the king or queen does not govern the country but appoints the government chosen by the people through democratic elections. The monarch invites the leader of the party with the most MPs, or the leader of a coalition, to serve as Prime Minister. The monarch may advise, warn and encourage, but policy decisions rest with the Prime Minister and cabinet. The monarch fulfils important ceremonial duties, including opening each new parliamentary session with a speech outlining the government's policies. All Acts of Parliament are made in the Majesty's name.

The House of Commons

The House of Commons is the more powerful of the two chambers, as its members are democratically elected. The Prime Minister and almost all cabinet members sit in the Commons. Each MP represents a parliamentary constituency. MPs serve everyone in their constituency, help create new laws, scrutinise government actions, and debate important national issues.

The House of Lords

Members of the House of Lords, known as peers, are not elected and do not represent a constituency. Until 1958, all peers were hereditary, senior judges, or bishops of the Church of England. Since 1958, the Prime Minister has had the authority to nominate life peers. Since 1999, hereditary peers have lost the automatic right to attend. The House of Lords proposes amendments, reviews laws passed by the Commons, and holds the government to account.

The Speaker

Debates in the House of Commons are chaired by the Speaker, who remains neutral and does not represent a political party. The Speaker is elected by other MPs through a secret ballot, maintains order during debates, and ensures the opposition receives guaranteed time to discuss issues.

Elections

MPs are elected at a General Election, held at least every five years. If an MP dies or resigns, a by-election takes place. MPs are chosen through 'first past the post', whereby the candidate with the most votes wins. The government is normally formed by the party that wins the majority of constituencies. If no party secures a majority, two parties may form a coalition.

The Prime Minister and cabinet

The Prime Minister (PM) leads the political party in power. The PM appoints cabinet members and oversees many important public appointments. The official residence is 10 Downing Street in central London. The PM appoints approximately 20 senior MPs as ministers, including the Chancellor of the Exchequer (economy), the Home Secretary (crime, policing and immigration), and the Foreign Secretary (foreign relations). Together these ministers form the cabinet, which meets weekly to take important policy decisions.

The opposition and the party system

The second-largest party in the House of Commons serves as the opposition. Its leader appoints senior MPs as 'shadow ministers' who form the shadow cabinet to scrutinise and challenge the government. The main political parties are the Conservative Party, the Labour Party, the Liberal Democrats, and parties representing Scottish, Welsh or Northern Irish interests. Pressure and lobby groups also play a significant role in shaping government policy.

The civil service and local government

Civil servants assist the government in developing and implementing policies. They are selected on merit and are politically neutral. Towns, cities and rural areas are governed by democratically elected councils known as 'local authorities', funded by central government and local taxes. London has 33 local authorities, with the Greater London Authority and the Mayor of London coordinating policies across the capital.

Devolved administrations

Since 1997, powers have been transferred from central government to give Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland greater control over local matters. Defence, foreign affairs, immigration, taxation and social security remain under central UK control, but many services such as education are managed by devolved administrations. The Welsh government in Cardiff has 60 Assembly members (AMs) elected every four years by proportional representation, with authority over education, health, economic development and housing. The Scottish Parliament, established in 1999 in Edinburgh, has 129 members (MSPs) elected by proportional representation, with powers covering civil and criminal law, health, education, planning and additional tax-raising abilities. The Northern Ireland Assembly, created following the 1998 Belfast (Good Friday) Agreement, has 90 members (MLAs) elected by proportional representation, with a power-sharing arrangement that distributes ministerial offices among the main parties. Its remit includes education, agriculture, the environment, health and social services.

The media and government

Parliamentary proceedings are broadcast on television and published in official reports known as Hansard. The UK has a free press, meaning newspapers operate free from government control. By law, radio and television coverage of political parties must be balanced and provide equal time to competing viewpoints.

Elections and voting

The UK has had a fully democratic voting system since 1928. The voting age is 18. All UK-born and naturalised adult citizens have the right to vote, as do Commonwealth and Irish Republic citizens resident in the UK. To vote, your name must appear on the electoral register. You can register through your local council electoral registration office. The register is updated annually, typically in September or October. People vote at polling stations, which are open from 7.00 am to 10.00 pm on election day, or they may vote by postal ballot.

Standing for office

Most citizens of the UK, the Irish Republic or the Commonwealth aged 18 or over are eligible to stand for public office. Exceptions include members of the armed forces, civil servants, and people convicted of certain criminal offences. Members of the House of Lords may not stand for the House of Commons but are eligible for all other public offices.

The Commonwealth

The Commonwealth is an association of countries that support one another and work together towards shared goals in democracy and development. Most member states were formerly part of the British Empire, though a few countries that were not have also joined. The monarch (currently King Charles III) serves as the ceremonial head of the Commonwealth, which currently has 56 member states. Membership is voluntary. The Commonwealth has no authority over its members, although it can suspend membership. The Commonwealth is founded on the core values of democracy, good government and the rule of law.

The European Union and Brexit

The European Union (EU), originally known as the European Economic Community (EEC), was established by six western European countries (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg and the Netherlands) who signed the Treaty of Rome on 25 March 1957. The UK initially chose not to join but became a member in 1973. The UK subsequently left the EU following the Brexit vote. Brexit officially took effect at 23:00 GMT on 31 January 2020. There are now 27 EU member states. With effect from 2024, no general principle of EU law forms part of UK law. European laws are termed directives, regulations or framework decisions.

The Council of Europe

The Council of Europe is separate from the EU. It has 47 member countries, including the UK, and is responsible for protecting and promoting human rights in those countries. It has no power to make laws but draws up conventions and charters, the most well-known being the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, commonly referred to as the European Convention on Human Rights.

The United Nations

The UK is a member of the United Nations (UN), an international organisation with more than 190 member countries. The UN was established after the Second World War with the aim of preventing conflict and promoting international peace and security. The UN Security Council has 15 members and recommends action in response to international crises and threats to peace. The UK is one of five permanent members of the Security Council.

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

The UK is a member of NATO. NATO is an alliance of European and North American countries that have pledged to assist each other in the event of an attack. It also works to maintain peace among all its members.

The law in the UK

Every person in the UK is entitled to equal treatment under the law, regardless of who they are or where they come from. The law is divided into criminal law and civil law. Criminal law deals with offences investigated by the police and punished by the courts. Civil law is used to resolve disputes between individuals or groups.

Examples of criminal offences include: carrying a weapon (it is illegal to carry a weapon of any kind, even for self-defence); selling or buying drugs such as heroin, cocaine, ecstasy and cannabis; racial crime (causing harassment or distress because of someone's religion or ethnic origin); selling tobacco to anyone under 18; smoking in nearly every enclosed public place; selling alcohol to anyone under 18 (though those aged 16 or over may drink alcohol with a meal in a hotel or restaurant); and drinking in alcohol-free zones.

Examples of civil law matters include: housing law, consumer rights, employment law (disputes over wages, unfair dismissal or discrimination) and debt.

The police and their duties

The police protect life and property, prevent disturbances (keeping the peace), and work to prevent and detect crime. They are organised into separate forces headed by Chief Constables and operate independently of the government. Since November 2012, publicly elected Police and Crime Commissioners (PCCs) in England and Wales have set local police priorities and the policing budget. Police officers must obey the law and must not engage in racial discrimination. Police community support officers (PCSOs) patrol the streets and work alongside the public.

The judiciary

Judges (the judiciary) are responsible for interpreting the law and ensuring that trials are conducted fairly. The government cannot interfere in this process. If judges determine that a public body is not respecting someone's legal rights, they can order that body to change its practices and/or pay compensation.

Criminal courts

In England, Wales and Northern Ireland, most minor criminal cases are heard in a Magistrates' Court. In Scotland, minor offences go to a Justice of the Peace Court. Serious offences are tried in a Crown Court before a judge and jury. In Scotland, serious cases are heard in a Sheriff Court or the High Court. A jury comprises 12 members in England, Wales and Northern Ireland, and 15 in Scotland. Youth Courts deal with cases involving those aged 10 to 17.

Civil courts

County Courts handle civil disputes including personal injury, family matters, breaches of contract, and divorce. In Scotland, most such matters go to the Sheriff Court. More serious civil cases are dealt with in the High Court or the Court of Session in Edinburgh. The small claims procedure resolves minor disputes without requiring a lawyer, for claims under 10,000 pounds in England and Wales, and 5,000 pounds in Scotland and Northern Ireland.

Legal advice

Solicitors are trained lawyers who provide advice on legal matters, act on behalf of their clients and represent them in court. The Citizens Advice Bureau and the Law Society can help you find a solicitor in your area.

Human rights

Britain has a long tradition of upholding individual rights and protecting essential freedoms. These rights are rooted in Magna Carta, the Habeas Corpus Act and the Bill of Rights of 1689. British diplomats and lawyers played a significant role in drafting the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, and the UK was among the first countries to sign the Convention in 1950. Key principles include the right to life, the prohibition of torture, the prohibition of slavery and forced labour, the right to liberty and security, the right to a fair trial, freedom of thought, conscience and religion, and freedom of expression. The Human Rights Act 1998 incorporated the European Convention on Human Rights into UK law.

Equal opportunities

UK laws ensure that people are not treated unfairly in any area of life or work on the basis of their age, disability, sex, pregnancy and maternity, race, religion or belief, sexuality or marital status. Organisations such as the Equality and Human Rights Commission can provide help if you experience discrimination.

Domestic violence, FGM and forced marriage

Domestic violence is a serious crime in the UK. Anyone who is violent towards their partner can be prosecuted. Female genital mutilation (FGM) is illegal in the UK, and both practising it and taking someone abroad for FGM constitute criminal offences. A marriage must be entered into with the full and free consent of both parties; forced marriage is a criminal offence. Forced Marriage Protection Orders can be sought to protect victims.

Taxation

People in the UK are required to pay tax on their income, including wages, self-employment profits, taxable benefits, pensions and income from property. HM Revenue & Customs (HMRC) collects taxes through the Pay As You Earn (PAYE) system for employees, while self-employed individuals use the self-assessment system. Nearly everyone in paid work must also pay National Insurance Contributions, which fund state benefits such as the state retirement pension and the NHS.

Driving

You must be at least 17 years old to drive a car or motorcycle in the UK and must hold a valid driving licence. To obtain a UK licence you must pass both a driving theory test and a practical driving test. Your vehicle must be registered with the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency (DVLA), you must pay road tax, hold valid motor insurance, and possess an MOT certificate if your vehicle is over three years old.

Values and responsibilities

Becoming a British citizen brings responsibilities along with opportunities. Although Britain is one of the world's most diverse societies, there is a set of shared values that everyone can embrace. These include: obeying and respecting the law, being aware of the rights of others, treating others with fairness, behaving responsibly, helping and protecting your family, respecting the environment, treating everyone equally regardless of sex, race, religion, age, disability, class or sexual orientation, working to provide for yourself and your family, helping others, and voting in local and national elections.

Being a good neighbour

When you move into a new home, introduce yourself to those living nearby. Getting to know your neighbours helps you become part of the community. Avoid problems by respecting their privacy, keeping noise to a minimum, maintaining your garden, and only putting refuse out when it is due to be collected.

Getting involved

Volunteering and contributing to your community are an important part of good citizenship. They help you integrate, meet new people, and fulfil your civic duties.

Jury service

People on the electoral register may be randomly selected to serve on a jury. Anyone on the register aged 18 to 75 can be called upon for jury service.

School governors and school boards

School governors, or school board members in Scotland, are people from the local community who contribute to children's education. They must be aged 18 or over. Their three key roles are setting the strategic direction of the school, ensuring accountability, and monitoring school performance.

Blood and organ donation

Donated blood assists people with a wide range of injuries and illnesses. The process of giving blood takes about an hour. Many people in the UK are on waiting lists for organ transplants. Registering as an organ donor makes it easier for your family to make decisions about donation when you die.

Volunteering

Volunteering involves working for good causes without payment. Activities include working with animals, youth work, improving the environment, supporting the homeless, mentoring, and assisting older people. There are thousands of active charities across the UK, from the British Red Cross to small local organisations.

Looking after the environment

It is important to recycle as much waste as possible. Shopping locally, walking and using public transport are effective ways to support your community and protect the environment.